Bibliography — Aj Fangman

A short introduction of myself:
I am a graduate of the University of Oregon in La Grande with a Bachelors in Agriculture with minors in Crops, Soils, and Business. There one of my favorite classes was an introductory entomology class. Currently I am going back to school for the purpose of obtaining a Graduate Certificate in GIS (Geographic Information Science). I am currently working on a farm in south-east Washington State and have previously worked as a Research Technician for Washington State University in the same area. For these reasons I wanted to make this project about migratory insects with a focus on potato psyllids, as they were previously absent from the region.
Pictures of some agricultural pests are found on the pictures page.
Thank you for visiting my annotated bibliography!
~Aj Fangman

Munyaneza, J. E., Crosslin, J. M., & Buchman, J. L. (2009). Seasonal Occurrence and Abundance of the Potato Psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli, in South Central Washington. American Journal of Potato Research, 86(6), 513–518. doi: 10.1007/s12230-009-9108-9

Oregon and Washington are on the the most productive potato crop locations in the world and used to be considered outside of the potato psyllid habitat. Now it is confirmed that not only are potato psyllids are in the region, but they are a vector of the disease Zebra Chip in potatoes. I can attest to the presence of this insect in the area personally. When infected with Zebra Chip the sugars in the tubers change to a state that makes them less desirable for processing into chips. The data collected here suggests that the potato psyllid does not survive winters but rather migrates to the Columbia Valley yearly with the arrival of certain temperatures and possibly certain weather conditions.

Klein, M. L. (2016). Seasonal Occurrence and Abundance of Insect Pests and Natural Enemies in the Columbia Basin, 1–129. Retrieved from https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/k643b444f?locale=en

This thesis attempts to show that potato psyllids found on plant family’s other than Solanaceae (nightshades, including potatoes) were due to volunteer potato plants left over from a previous harvest. GIS was used in planning and tying data to different sample points in north-central Oregon. It is mentioned that psyllids are relatively new to the area and farmers IPM (Integrated Pest Management) strategies have changed to accommodate. psyllids can be found during high altitude collections as well as on the ground. Current consensus is that psyllids arrive in the north-west each year via long distance northward migration. Other pests to potatoes are discussed as well. Such as the green peach aphid, leafhoppers, and potato tubermoths.

Chapman, J. W., Reynolds, D. R., & Smith, A. D. (2003). Vertical-Looking Radar: A New Tool for Monitoring High-Altitude Insect Migration. BioScience, 53(5), 503–511. doi: 10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0503:vrantf]2.0.co;2

“Millions of tons of insects are aloft in the earth’s atmosphere at any given moment.” The authors introduce a ground to air radar technology designed for monitoring high-altitude insects. It is called the Rothamsted vertical-looking radar. Similar technologies have existed but were much more expensive and time consuming to operate. With this technology researchers in the English countryside have found that there are mass aerial migrations of insects in the warmer months and significantly more in July and mostly during the top of the day.

Wu, Y., Price, B., Isenegger, D., Fischlin, A., Allgöwer, B., & Nuesch, D. (2006). Real-time 4D visualization of migratory insect dynamics within an integrated spatiotemporal system. Ecological Informatics, 1(2), 179–187. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoinf.2006.03.004

Larch Bud Moths can migrate long distances and massively defoliate their favorite plants as they travel along. The researchers used DEMs (Data Elevation Models) and terrain textures for their study area the best they could with the computers of the time. The study area is in the Swiss Alps. The way they made their 4D models and clouds to show the flying insects is interesting and unique. The pictures of the model clearly show how high the moths can fly when moving from area to area. Larch Bud Moths target Larch trees and areas with these trees were marked into 50x50 grids.

Bahlai, C. A., Sikkema, S., Hallett, R. H., Newman, J., & Schaafsma, A. W. (2010). Modeling Distribution and Abundance of Soybean Aphid in Soybean Fields Using Measurements From the Surrounding Landscape. Environmental Entomology, 39(1), 50–56. doi: 10.1603/en09127

This research focuses on a species of aphid absent in North America until the 2000’s. Since then it has become a top pest in soybean fields, at times requiring it to be added to an IPM (Integrated Pest Management) plan. Soybean aphid (Aphis glycines Matsumura) is capable of short distance migration on its own as well as covering much longer distances when aided by weather. The study area takes place in Ontario, Canada. The researchers noted that the aphids can travel from the United States to Canada after overwintering on non-crop host plants. The aphids are seemingly also able to overwinter in Canada at times. After following aphid densities throughout the trial years, the researchers hope to aid in the prediction of in which areas should plan for high numbers of Soybean Aphids in their crops.

Dahan, J., Wenninger, E. J., Thompson, B., Eid, S., Olsen, N., & Karasev, A. V. (2017). Relative Abundance of Potato Psyllid Haplotypes in Southern Idaho Potato Fields During 2012 to 2015, and Incidence of ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ Causing Zebra Chip Disease. Plant Disease, 101(5), 822–829. doi: 10.1094/pdis-05-16-0668-re

Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum (Lso) is the binomial name for a bacterium that can cause Zebra Chip, a disease in potatoes known to be vectored by potato psyllids. There are 5 known haplotypes of Lso and 4 haplotypes of potato psyllids identified in North America. This study aimed to find what haplotypes of psyllid are found in southern Idaho, in what numbers, and during what seasons. As well as what haplotypes of Lso were found and which haplotype of psyllid were carriers of the bacterium. A worrying result of the study is that psyllids carrying Lso were found to have the most genetic mutations, possibly indicating coevolution between the insects and bacterium. Another interesting note is that a cross between two psyllid haplotypes was found. It was determined that this cross must have occurred in Idaho due to the two haplotypes having two completely unrelated migration routes to Idaho.

Veran, S., Simpson, S. J., Sword, G. A., Deveson, E., Piry, S., Hines, J. E., & Berthier, K. (2015). Modeling spatiotemporal dynamics of outbreaking species: influence of environment and migration in a locust. Ecology, 96(3), 737–748. doi: 10.1890/14-0183.1

Taking place in Australia, the smallest continent, I would expect an insect migration to be much shorter of a distance than in the United States. However, they refer to a local migration as anything less than 400km. This can me comparable to pest migrations in North America. They look into whether environmental factors or migrations of locusts are the cause of large-scale outbreaks and conclude that even if large-scale environmental factors such as rain and temperature are the main cause, migrations still have an impact. The knowledge of how environmental factors affect insect migrations could be applied to other species of insects with some adaptations.

Syfert, M. M., Serbina, L., Burckhardt, D., Knapp, S., & Percy, D. M. (2017). Emerging New Crop Pests: Ecological Modelling and Analysis of the South American Potato Psyllid Russelliana solanicola (Hemiptera: Psylloidea) and Its Wild Relatives. Plos One, 12(1), 1–18. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167764

Russelliana solanicola Tuthill is the binomial name for a psyllid in South America. There they are also worried about disease spreading by these insects as a vector. It is noted that this insect could make a new home in other parts of the world where potatoes are emerging as a cash crop. Regions with similar climate can use the SDM (Species Distribution Model) to predict its spread. The range of species in this study were estimated using a mathematical technique called MCP (minimum convex polygon). PCA (Principle Component Analysis) was used to distinguish between taxa that feed on potato plants and/or plants in the same family (Solanaceae) and those that do not. R. solanicola is thought to be in the prosess of invading other areas of South America where it had not been found before. Comparisons are made to B. cockerelli, AKA the North American potato psyllid, and how it spreads. They are worried that R. solanicola could start to cause detrimental impacts on potato crops as well.

Swisher, K. D., Sengoda, V. G., Dixon, J., Echegaray, E., Murphy, A. F., Rondon, S. I., … Crosslin, J. M. (2013). Haplotypes of the Potato Psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli, on the Wild Host Plant, Solanum dulcamara, in the Pacific Northwestern United States. American Journal of Potato Research, 90(6), 570–577. doi: 10.1007/s12230-013-9330-3

According to these researchers potato psyllids can actually survive the winter in the northwestern United States. The psyllids sampled that survived the winder did not carry the bacterium that causes the disease Zebra Chip and so the researchers determined that these psyllids were not an immediate threat. The western haplotype of potato psyllid is known to have a 5%-10% chance of being a vector for Zebra Chip. Now that it is known that some psyllids can overwinter in the northwest, we know that there may be a chance of Zebra Chip infecting potato crops sooner in the year.

Liu, D., Trumble, J. T., & Stouthamer, R. (2006). Genetic differentiation between eastern populations and recent introductions of potato psyllid (Bactericera cockerelli) into western North America. Entomologia Experimentalis Et Applicata, 118(3), 177–183. doi: 10.1111/j.1570-7458.2006.00383.x

It has been believed that psyllids had large-scale migrations from overwintering breeding sites in Arizona. From their they would migrate to Colorado, Nebraska, and other norther states. This article points out that the overwintering sites were much farther south than originally thought. Specifically, in Mexico. The researchers wanted to answer if the increase in psyllids on the west coast of the USA were due to migrations or a new biotype. This study sampled psyllids in locations in Mexico, Southern California, Nebraska, and Colorado. The psyllid population from Mexico, Colorado, and Nebraska were similar genetically, which the authors noted was not surprising as it is known that they “migrate northward in spring every year from the southern Texas border near the Gulf of Mexico to Nebraska and other northern states on the warm monsoon winds from the Gulf of Mexico.”

Suszkiw. (2010, May 17). Taking aim at potato psyllid. Western Farm Press.

Written in 2010, this brief newspaper article exemplifies the importance of potato psyllid prediction and control by informing the reader about a new joint project by the Agriculture Research Service and the University of California at Riverside. The two were working to create a chemical attractant for potato psyllid. The chemical would allow for better trapping and tracking of potato psyllid migrations that would in turn allow for more efficient control application in an IMP (Integrated Pest Management) plan. Saving money, time, and nonharmful or beneficial insects.

USDA AgResearch Magazine. (2009). Bacterium Identified as Prime Suspect in Zebra Chip Case. Retrieved December 7, 2019, from https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2009/oct/zebra.

Zebra Chip started disrupting potato harvests in the year 2000 in southwestern states. At the time it was unknown what caused the disease. Farmers sprayed insecticide on their fields in an effort to stop the spread each year. It was known that potato psyllids were involved in spreading the disease as a vector. It wasn’t until 2007 that a specific bacterium was identified at the culprit. With that information scientists can study the overwintering sites of potato psyllids to search for signs of the bacteria. With this information farmers and scientists can plan planting dates in a way that best avoids the migrations of psyllids that may spread the disease.

Carlos A. Antolínez, Aranzazu Moreno, Irene Ontiveros, Sandra Pla, María Plaza, Susana Sanjuan, José L. Palomo, M. Jennifer Sjölund, Jason C. Sumner-Kalkun, Yvonne M. Arnsdorf, Colin J. Jeffries, David Ouvrard and Alberto Fereres. (2019). Seasonal Abundance of Psyllid Species on Carrots and Potato Crops in Spain. Insects, 10(9), 287. doi: 10.3390/insects10090287

The bacterium causing Zebra Chip, Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum (Lso), is also a problem in Europe. Apparently, psyllids carrying this bacterium are also a large problem for carrot farms as well as potato farms there. Apiaceae (carrots, celery, etc.) crops are the major concern with 40-90% of fields infected in Spain and Tunisia. The regions that carrot psyllids and potato psyllids inhabit do not overlap, so the researchers believe the chance of Lso transmitting from carrot crop to potato crop is very limited. In some of the test fields psyllids were detected as early as May or June, with peek populations in September or August. These dates are very similar to incidences here in the USA. As someone who monitors sticky card traps on a farm, I found the researchers findings that sticky traps did not detect certain haplotypes as well as sweep net searches.

B. L. RICHARDS. (1933). Psyllid Yellows of the Potato. Journal of Agricultural Research, (46)3, 189-216.

In the early 1900’s it was known that insects could be vectors for disease. In this case researchers in Utah were trying to find the source for a new disease in potato that they called Yellow. Some pointed to tomato psyllids as the vector, but evidence was lacking. Still the disease came to be known as Psyllid Yellows and soon nearly every field sampled within 22 counties in Utah had 100% infection rate. Research did prove via multiple experiments in multiple states that psyllids were directly associated with the disease. It was concluded that the disease likely started somewhere where the psyllids survive the winter, then spread with the psyllids as they migrated.

Erik J Wenninger, Amy Carroll, Jennifer Dahan, Alexander V Karasev, Michael Thornton, Jeff Miller, Philip Nolte, Nora Olsen, William Price, Phenology of the Potato Psyllid, Bactericera cockerelli (Hemiptera: Triozidae), and “Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum” in Commercial Potato Fields in Idaho, Environmental Entomology, Volume 46, Issue 6, December 2017, Pages 1179–1188, https://doi-org.ezproxy.proxy.library.oregonstate.edu/10.1093/ee/nvx158

This article from 2017 notes now Zebra Chip has become the chief worry among producers. The disease is known to spread through potato psyllids (Bactericera cockerelli) being the vector. Psyllid Yellows was the largest concern of psyllid vectored diseases. It is previously thought that potato psyllids migrated north from the southwestern states and Mexico, where they are native. The researchers cite recent studies that show potato psyllid overwintering in Washington, Idaho, and Oregon. The evidence in this study supports arguments that potato psyllids do indeed overwinter in at least Idaho. The population numbers and locations of overwintering psyllids depend on the temperatures, as well as times the onset times. The authors of the study noted that they did not directly study Zebra Chip, but the years during the study with the highest populations of psyllid had the highest instances of Zebra Chip. I found the researchers finding that reverse vacuums were the least effective in finding psyllids interesting. In my experience it seemed that this was because psyllids are very quick to escape nets when they are opened for inspection, making identification more difficult.